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Describe how diodes limit current to motion in only one direction Explain how a transistor can amplify or increase voltage changes

oday s electronic instruments, such as radios, televisions, CD players, and microcomputers, rely on semiconductor devices that are combined on chips of silicon a few millimeters wide In these devices, current and voltage vary in more complex ways than are described by Ohm s law As a result, semiconductor devices can change current from AC to DC and amplify voltages

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The simplest semiconductor device is the diode A diode consists of a sandwich of p-type and n-type semiconductors Rather than two separate pieces of doped silicon being joined, a single sample of intrinsic silicon is treated first with a p-dopant, then with an n-dopant Metal contacts are coated on each region so that wires can be attached, as shown in Figure 29-9a The boundary between the p-type and the n-type regions is called the junction The resulting device, therefore, is called a pn-junction diode The free electrons on the n-side of the junction are attracted to the positive holes on the p-side The electrons readily move into the p-side and recombine with the holes Holes from the p-side similarly move into the n-side, where they recombine with electrons As a result of this flow, the n-side has a net positive charge, and the p-side has a net negative charge These charges produce forces in the opposite direction that stop further movement of charge carriers The region around the junction is left with neither holes nor free electrons This region, depleted of charge carriers, is called the depletion layer Because it has no charge carriers, it is a poor conductor of electricity Thus, a junction diode consists of relatively good conductors at the ends that surround a poor conductor

Figure 29-9 A diagram of the pn-junction diode (a) shows the depletion layer, where there are no charge carriers Compare the magnitude of current in a reverse-biased diode (b) and a forward-biased diode (c)

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When a diode is connected into a circuit in the way shown in Figure 29-9b, both the free electrons in the n-type semiconductor and the holes in the p-type semiconductor are attracted toward the battery The width of the depletion layer is increased, and no charge carriers meet Almost no current passes through the diode: it acts like a very large resistor, almost an insulator A diode oriented in this manner is a reverse-biased diode If the battery is connected in the opposite direction, as shown in Figure 29-9c, charge carriers are pushed toward the junction If the voltage of the battery is large enough 06 V for a silicon diode electrons reach the p-end and fill the holes The depletion layer is eliminated, and a current passes through the diode The battery continues to supply electrons for the n-end It removes electrons from the p-end, which is the same as supplying holes With further increases in voltage from the battery, the current increases A diode in this kind of circuit is a forward-biased diode The graph shown in Figure 29-10 shows the current through a silicon diode as a function of voltage across it If the applied voltage is negative, the reverse-biased diode acts like a very high-value resistor and only a tiny current passes (about 10 11 A for a silicon diode) If the voltage is positive, the diode is forward-biased and acts like a low-value resistor, but not, however, one that obeys Ohm s law One major use of a diode is to convert AC voltage to DC voltage with only one polarity When a diode is used in a circuit that does this, it is called a rectifier The arrow in the symbol for the diode, which you ll see in Example Problem 4, shows the direction of conventional current.